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Mexico is a mixture of many different cultures and peoples. Some Mexicans have roots in Spain. Others can trace their roots back to the earliest peoples who settled the region.
Some are related to Africans who were brought in as slaves during the colonial period. Most Mexicans no longer think of themselves as part of one ethnic group.
EMPIRE
Mexico was home to many civilizations, long before the Europeans arrived. In the early 1300s, the Aztecs were searching for a place to settle. They entered the Valley of Mexico. According to legend, in 1325, on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, they saw an eagle standing on a cactus, holding a snake in its mouth. The Aztecs viewed this as a sign from their god Huitzilopochtli. There, in the middle of the shallow lake, they built the city of Tenochtitlan. It eventually became a major city and the center of a powerful empire. The eagle on Mexico’s flag recalls the country’s Aztec heritage.
▲ The Aztecs fought wars and formed alliances. They conquered the neighboring cities and towns. By 1500, they controlled most of the Valley of Mexico. But the conquered people hated Aztec control, especially the tribute (payment) they had to make in the form of services and goods. The Aztec ruins above are in modern-day Mexico City.
◀ The governor of Cuba appointed Spanish adventurer Hernán Cortés to lead an expedition. Several hundred men and horses went with Cortés. In 1519, they landed on the Gulf Coast of Mexico. As they marched inland, many of the Aztecs’ enemies joined them. Aztec armies were no match for the guns, cannons, horses, and armor of the ruthless Spaniards. Plus, the invaders brought diseases that wiped out many of the people of Tenochtitlan. Within two years, the Aztec empire was over.
SPANISH RULE
Cortés claimed the Aztec lands for Spain. He also claimed the lands of other peoples, including the Maya and Tarasco. These groups held the land around the central plateau, all the way down to the Yucatán Peninsula. Cortés then claimed the land that was home to nomadic groups in the north, which stretched to where the U.S. is today. It all became the colony of New Spain.
▲ When the Spanish ruled Mexico, they created a strict social class system. At the top were people born in Spain. Beneath them were criollos, who were Spaniards born in Mexico. Next came people of mixed Spanish and Indian background, known as mestizos, as well as people of African and European or Indian and African background. They were known as castas, meaning “people of mixed heritage.” Below these groups of mixed background were Indians. Enslaved persons were at the bottom.
▲ Now that Mexico was a Spanish colony, the rulers created large estates called haciendas, where they raised crops or cattle. Few mestizos received any land. Over decades, Indian communities lost the lands they had owned. They were forced to work on the haciendas like slaves. Over time, anger at the Spanish ruling class boiled over. Many local communities in central Mexico fiercely defended their right to self-government. Sometimes they sued the haciendas.
▲ To convert the Indians to the Catholic religion, the Spanish brought in missionaries. They built churches where they hoped Indians would learn the Christian faith. They destroyed Aztec temples. They also stopped Indians from practicing their own religions. A few priests, like Bartholomé de las Casas (above), protested how badly the Indians were treated. Bernardino de Sahagún learned a native language. He also spent many decades of his life writing an encyclopedia that helped preserve knowledge of Aztec culture.
INDEPENDENCE
Mexico eventually fought and won a war for independence. But even after the war, people who were related to the Spanish conquerors still had most of the land, wealth, and power. Indians and other poor people had little of any of these things. Meanwhile, the leaders of government changed often.
▲ In 1810, Mexican priest Miguel Hidalgo started the fight for independence in the town of Dolores. He inspired hundreds of Indians and many miners and criollos to join him. When the war ended in 1821, Mexico was free from Spain. Father Hidalgo became known as the Father of Independence.
▲ Benito Juárez was a Zapotec Indian and an early fighter for change. As Mexico’s president in the 1860s, he worked to create a strong national government. He wanted poor people to have better health care and education. Juárez also led the fight against the French occupation of Mexico. The Mexicans resisted so strongly that France gave up and pulled out their army in 1867.
Porfirio Díaz came to power in 1877. He was a dictator who brought order to the country. Although the Mexican economy grew larger and railroads were built, the gap between the rich and the poor remained. The poor kept losing land, and most peasants saw little change for the better. Díaz held power for more than 30 years. ▶
▲ By 1910, the Mexican people had had enough. A rebellion broke out. Emiliano Zapata was a key leader in the battle for independence and fair treatment. One of ten children in a mestizo family, Zapata wanted the government to make the rich give the peasants the farmland and estates they held. Zapata died in the fighting, but his bold vision and courage inspired others.
▲ One of the most famous rebel leaders was Francisco “Pancho Villa.” He combined his forces with Zapata’s. The revolution of 1910 led to the creation of a new constitution in 1917. It provided for land reform. However, fighting in some regions continued into the 1920s. Mexico probably lost a million people during those ten years. Over time, many of the haciendas were broken up and the land returned to the peasants.
